• Introduction:
  Lucknow Pact refers to an agreement reached between the Indian National Congrss and the Muslim League at the joint session of both the parties, held in Lucknow in 1916 by Gangadhar Tilak and All India Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah. The Congress adopted it at its Lucknow Session on 29 December and the League adopted it on 31 December, 1916. Thus meeting at Lucknow marked the reunion of the moderate and radical wings of the Congress. This pact dealt the structure of the government of India as well as the relation of Hindu and Muslim communities.
  Background:
  The main historical points in the background of Lucknow Pact 1916 are as follows;
  1.) 1st Word War:
  1st World War started in 1914.
  2.) Indian Sacrifice:
  Indians sacrificed a lot in terms of lives, manpowe, supplies, finances and patience with high prices of wheat, kerosene, rice, etc.
  3.) Turkey Issue:
  There were reservations of Muslims about Turkey and they wanted to dispel their pro-British reputation.
  4.) Participation in governing the Sub- continent:
  The Lucknow Pact between the Muslim league and the Congress was led due to the growing determination to participate in the governing of Sub- continent.
  5.) Quaid-eAzam:
  The joining of the Muslim League by Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah gave a new determination to Indian policies.
  6.) Self rule:
  Muslim League had already demanded self rule for India as had the Congress.
  7.) Separate electorates:
  The Muims were demanding separate electorates. Both the parties were demanding same privileges.
  8.) Persuading the government:
  Leaders from both sides agreed to cooperate to bring the government around to accept their demands.

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Iqbal’s clarification about his Allahabab Address
Following is the letter, Allama Iqbal wrote to Prof. Edward John Thompson of Oxford University:
Dr. Sir Mohd Iqbal, M.A., Ph.D. Barrister-at-Law
Lahore 4 March 1934
My dear Mr. Thompson,
I have received your review of my book. It is excellent and I am grateful to you for the very kind things you have said of me. But you have made one mistake which I hasten to point as I consider it rather serious. You call me a protagonist of the scheme “Pakistan”. Now Pakistan is not my scheme. The one that I suggested in my address is the creation of a Muslim province i.e a province having an overwhelming population of Muslims in the North West of India. This new province will be according to my scheme, a part of the proposed Indian federation. Pakistan scheme proposes a separate federation of Muslim provinces directly related to England as a separate dominion. This scene originated in Cambridge. The authors of this scheme believe that we Muslim Round Tablers have sacrificed the Muslim nation on the altar of the Hindu or the so called Indian Nationalism.
Yours Sincerely,
Mohammed Iqbal.
Importance
Iqbal’s address is the forceful and logical presentation of the Muslim case in India. Why should they be treated as a political entity rather than a minority? The answer is as follows;

• Territorial adjustments will enable the Muslims to develop themselves in accordance with their ideals and serve the cause of Ummah.
• Redistribution of territory developed later on the concept of Muslim homeland.
• He further expressed these ideas in letters to JINNAH from May 1936 to November 1937. He talked of a separate federation of Muslim provinces. The North Western India and Bengal can be considered as entitled to self-determination like other nations in India and outside. Shariah’s development is impossible without a free Muslim state or states. He advised the Muslims to be above the self-interest and devote themselves to Islam.
• In difficult times, Islam has saved the Muslims.
• Faith, culture and historical traditions are more important than patriotism.

Allahabad Address
Allama Iqbal delivered lectures on Islam in Aligarh, Hyderabad and Madras from 1928 to 1929. At Allahabad, he presided over the meeting and delivered his famous address. The address was delivered in December 1930 in which Iqbal presented a review of the political and social situation of India and solution of the ills befalling India. He evaluated the importance of role of Islam in the lives of Muslims of Britain India. He said that the European view of duality of religion and state does not apply here in the Indian society. Rejecting the secularism he said,“Religion is not a totally personal affair”.
He explained that Islam offers an ethical order, socio-political structure, legal framework, code of life, culture and civilisation. It is a living, dynamic force that has a profound impact on the lives of Indian Muslims. With the force of Islam, the scattered and disoriented people have been turned into an organized force.
The Muslims are not willing to submerge their religious individuality. They have lack of trust and fear of domination from Hindus. If the British want any sort of internal harmony, it would be impossible unless the communal question is settled. It’s historical reality that India is a continent inhabited by diverse people. No political arrangement may be acceptable without recognizing this reality.

• If the Muslims have an opportunity to develop in accordance with their Islamic civilisation and tradition, they would be willing to sacrifice their lives for India.
• Federalism cannot succeed without recognizing the national identity of the Muslims.
• Territorial redistribution of British India on the basis of religion has become a need of time.
• Punjab, Sindh, NWFP and Balochistan be amalgamated into a State, self government within the British empire or without it. The formation of such a consolidated North Western Muslim State appears to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North West India. To India, it will offer peace and security due to internal balance of power.
• Islam is a people building force in India that has given moral consciousness and political identity to the people.

Allama Iqbal’s Presidential Address
Dr. Allama Muhammad Iqbal:
Dr Allama Muhammad Iqbal ranks amongst the Muslim intellectuals who left a deep impact on history. He inspired the Muslims of the Sub-continent and beyond. He infused a moving spirit and identity in the Indian Muslims. He presented a framework of their political future and talked how that would help to achieve the goal of Ummah. He presented a vision and dream in his Allahabad Address.
Background:
The Hindu-Muslim question had great importance and stood crucial to British Indian history after 1857, especially in the 20th century. To Muslims, the key issue remained is "separate identity . They tried their level best to make the rival nations understand that the Muslims are a separate nation, having different culture and civilisation interests and rights. The Two Nations theory couldn’t fascinate the Hindus and the British peoples because they believed in “territorial nationalism”. The Hindus desired to absorb them in their majority but they couldn’t face the arguments of the Muslim intellectuals. By 1930, Muslims had developed a sense of identity and political demands. Iqbal delivered his presidential Address in this background.
Iqbal’s stay in Europe, 1905-08, helped to crystallize his thoughts. He returned to India in 1908 and started work on the roots of Muslim decline and the mechanism to uplift the Muslims. He reminded them to follow the teachings of the Holy Prophet(PBUH) practically as the ideal leader. He emphasized on the ideals, teachings and principles of Islam. He sought salvation through Islam.
Social positions:
He was awarded with many prominent social positions like

• Title of Sir was conferred in 1922
• Member of Punjab Legislative Council (1927-1930)

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Consequences of war of independence
The consequences of war of independence are as follows:
1) End of the East India company’s rule:

• Crown took over the change from Company.
• Secretary of State of India was appointed who reported to British Parliament.
  2) Queen Victoria’s Proclamation:
• The transfer of government was done on 1 November, 1958 at Allahabad.
• Lord Canning became the first Viceroy of India, promised not to intervene in religious and social matters, would bring equality, pardon soldiers, best for Indian Industries.
  3) End of Mughals and Peshwa:
  Bahadur Shah-|| went to Yangon and Nana Sahib went to Nepal. Two foes of British came to an end.
  4) Relations with Princely States:
  Policy of Annexation and Doctrine of Lapse were abandoned.
  5) Policy of Divide & Rule:
  After 1858, British started Divide & Rule policy i.e Caste against Caste, Princes against people and Hindus against Muslims.
  6) Winding gulf between Hindus & Muslims:
  British sowed seeds of hatred between Hindus and Muslims.
  7) Racial Antagonism:
  British believed that they were superior and maintained distance from Indians. Railways, Parks, hotels, etc had seats " Reserved for Europeans only".
  8) Increased racial bitterness:
  British believed that Indians aren’t trust worthy and remodeled the structure of Indian government based on an idea of a superior race.
  9) Religious changes:
  British rulers declared that they would not intervene in religious affairs, customs and traditions.
  10) Foreign policy:
  Indian foreign policy was decided by British within two aims:
  a. Protection of its Indian empire.
  b. Expansion of British economic and commercial interests.
  11) Changes in Army:
  To avoid another uprising, Indian army was recognized after 1858 in the following matter:
  **a) No. of Indian troops was decreased to 1,40,000 and no. of Eurpean troops was increased to 65,000.
  **b) **European troops were kept in key locations.
  **c) **Policy of excluding Indians from officer positions was strictly followed.
  **c) **Weapons were never placed under the charge of Indians.
  **d) **Divide & Rile policy was practiced during the recruitment in the army. Discouraged nationalism through caste/religion discrimination in regiments.
  **e) **Soldiers were not allowed to read newspapers & journals.
  12) Economic exploitation:
  **a) **India became a colony to export raw material and import finished goods.
  **b) **Salaries of soldiers, military officers, Council members were taken from India’s resources.
  **c) **Peasants were bankrupt/poor during British rule(Indigo peasants).
  **d) **Indian cottage interests and handicrafts collapsed.
  **e) **Indians had to pay heavy taxes, revenues and dividend to British.
  13) Rise of nationalism:
  **a) **Uprising of 1858, paved way for the Rise of the National Movement.
  **b) **Sacrifices made by Rani Luxmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Mangal Panday inspired Indians.
  **c) **Started a tradition of resistance to the British rule.
  14) Depriving the Muslims:
  **a) **The war ended up with the sweeping victory of the British Raj and the end of 800 years of Muslims rule.
  **b) **The victory in War gave them authorities to avenge their disobedience, they made the policies later on to deprive the Muslims of their due rights in India.
  **c) **They denied their due shares in employments, education, trade and finance, while the Hindus were given priority in these domains.
  **d) **Posts of ink fillers, koolies and messengers were fixed for the Muslims as punishment for their audacity in 1857.

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Reasons behind failure of war of independence
Following are the main reasons behind the failure of war of independence:
1) Limited Rebellion:

• Area of revolt remained limited
• Even complete North Indian didn’t part in it.
• It was limited by some neighborly territories.
  2) Better equipped Britishers:
• The British had better resources than the rebels.
• Gradually, the English army had a lot of resources.
• The telegraph proved very much useful for the English.
  3) The native ruler’s “Misgivings”:
• Many native rulers were with the British.
• The rulers of Patilia, Jinol, Hyderabad, etc supported the British at all.
  4) Opposition from Intelligentsia:
• The Indian intelligentsia didn’t support the rebels.
• The revolt could neither be organised nor fed on intellegentual and emotional ground.
  5) Lacking of strategy:
• Primary source of the failure of the war is planned efforts.
• Absence of central organisation and inferiority in general ship, military skills, strategy and discipline of rebel as compared to the Britishers.
  6) Lack of leadership:
• Absence of capable leaders
• None of the leader are capable and good commanders.
• There is no one in those leaders who are willing to guide their people in good direction.
  7) Diplomacy of English:
  *The Britishers succeeded through their good leadership and well trained army. And well trained military commanders like Neil, Nicoloson, Havelock and Huge Rose.
• The diplomatic skills of the British were also responsible for thier success.